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جمجمهشناسی
Practitioners of phrenology (the study of the cranium's shape and size), craniology (or craniometry, the study of the skull's shape and size), and physiognomy (the study of facial features and expression) believed that the physical human body, and most particularly the cranium and the facial features, could be read for signs of temperament, moral capacity, health, and intelligence.
Craniology emerged in the nineteenth century as a science of measurement using tactile and visual analysis to establish racial taxonomies for comparing the skulls of different races.
Natural scientists used craniology to make claims about the supposed evolutionary superiority of people of European or Anglo descent and to try to show that people of African or Asian descent have more recent evolutionary ties to primates.25 The use of these sciences of physical measurement and assessment by touch and sight was largely motivated by the racist agendas of colonial powers, which deployed science to justify their subjugation of nonwhite peoples, defined as incapable of self-determination because of supposed developmental inferiority.
A modern interpretation of craniology, phrenology, and physiognomy would tell us that these were pseudosciences, not true sciences, not only because the links made between appearance and social meaning are false, but because they rely on the inaccurate idea that appearance and meaning are somehow absolute and fixed.
Craniology, phrenology, and other sciences of categorization are related to the rise of the science of eugenics, which was devoted to studying and controlling human reproduction as a means of improving the human race.
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