1
محیط زیست و منابع طبیعی::
لیتوسفر
The most precious ones are the air that living organisms breathe and water that is available in the form of hydrosphere either in the tropo- sphere or in the lithosphere (especially groundwater).
It is necessary that more applied and detailed research must be carried out to appreciate the meteorological events in the troposphere, ozone depletion in the stratosphere, pollution in the lower troposphere, and transboundary between the troposphere and hydro- lithosphere; energy, transport, and industrial pollutants generation and move- ment; effects of acid rain; and wastewater leakage into the surface and, especially, into the groundwater resources (S¸ en, 2008a).
The second major constituent of the lower atmosphere is oxygen, which is also the most abundant element in the hydrosphere and lithosphere.
Most of the uncombined gaseous oxygen in the atmosphere is neither the hydrosphere nor the lithosphere, but photosynthesis by green plants.
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3
زمینشناسی و معدن::
لیتوسفر، لیتوسفر، سنگ کره
Peridotites were examined from the lithospheric mantle directly below the crust along the Mid-At- lantic Ridge from the equator to northern latitudes (Fig. 6.15).
the base of the lithosphere, they were converted into particularly large mushroom-like heads that provided the intense, abrupt magmatic activity.
However, only oceanic lithosphere is able to sink deeply into the Earth's mantle to become reincorporated there.
The first type occurs when ocean lithosphere is subducted below other ocean lithosphere ("intra- oceanic subduction zone") to create a volcanic island arc system built on oceanic crust ("ensi- matic island arc"; sima - artifical word first used by Wegener made from silicon and magnesium to characterize ocean floor and Earth's mantle).
The second type occurs where oceanic litho- sphere is subducted beneath continental lithosphere and an island arc underlain by continental crust forms ("ensialic island arc"; sial - silicon and alu- minum for continental crust).،the base of the lithosphere, it uplifts and stretches the overlying lithosphere.
depths along convergent boundaries where oceanic lithosphere is being subducted (see Figure 8.3).
slabs of relatively cool oceanic lithosphere and the overlying
As the lithosphere descends,
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