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From 1919 until the end of World War II, when nationalism be- came global, Europe was the focal point of intense balance-of-power politics.29 The critical point was the failure to prevent a second cataclys- mic war, as revisionist Germany, Japan, and Italy, despite their aggregate material weaknesses, attempted to break the balance of power in their favor.
They succeeded at first, and it took the intervention of the United States and a determined Soviet Union under Stalin to eventually reverse the revisionist states' victories.
Finally, the absence of expansionist ideologies such as Fascism, Na- zism, and Marxism-Leninism offers some comfort that rising powers may not succumb, as their earlier counterparts did, to the temptation to become highly revisionist.60 Expansionist ideologies generate uncertainty for nonadherents and neighboring states, both of which may become tar- gets of predation.
The established powers' grand strategies held little room for the peaceful accommodation of the revisionist powers.
A revisionist state that fundamentally challenges the sovereignty of several states requires large- scale hard balancing.
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