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ملاکان
Upland afforestation with non-native conifers had its ori- gins in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, when landowners such as the Duke of Atholl planted them extensively on their estates.11 Manchester Corporation established conifer plantations around Thirlmere to control runoff in the catchment and reduce silting.
notably in Spain, where reduction of soil erosion was a farther concern.16 Ireland, one of the least wooded countries in Europe, now has 7 per cent of its area covered with forest, less than one per cent of it broad-leaved and much of it planted since the 1960s by the state, with private landowners becoming involved
Images of the idealized English coun- tryside are of enclosed fields, churches and villages, but also country houses and their parks.27 Large landowners may have lost some of their power but not their symbolism.
protect landscape for posterity goes back to eighteenth-century estate improvements made by landowners who knew that the benefits of their work would be fully realized only by their sons or even their grandsons.
the Exmoor National Park authorities were unable to prevent private landowners from ploughing up thousands of acres of heather moorland within the park.
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